Developments in Internet-based communications and instructional technologies since the late 20th century provide previously unimaginable opportunities for people of all ages to tap the vast stores of world knowledge. Many of these technologies inevitably bring forth new forms of socialization. Contradicting the long-term historical movement away from apprenticeships or learning within a family setting and toward institutionalized education controlled by central governments, distance learning and other technological developments have opened the possibilities of learning in multiple ways at various sites—all under the control of individual learners. Technologies that promise to bring people together to share knowledge and life experiences, conversely, may also lead to the isolation of individuals and to the absence of face-to-face interactions among peers and teachers that are critical to preparation for adult roles as members of particular cultures and societies. Homeschooling has also raised concerns about childhood socialization, though consortia of homeschooling parents (whereby students can meet and attend classes with other home-based students) are increasingly common. The use of learning packages and degree programs exported from the metropolitan centres of North America, Europe, and the Pacific (notably Australia) to the countries of the Southern Hemisphere, while providing opportunity for advanced studies, may also include culturally inappropriate content, disregard for traditional knowledge, and the displacement of local languages by an international lingua franca, such as English.

Finally, it should be noted that, in addition to state-regulated schooling, there are many parallel or supplementary systems of education often designated as “nonformal” and “popular.” Many private and public agencies provide various forms of instruction, aimed at specific populations, to serve needs not met by public schooling. In Sweden, for example, reforms implemented in the 1990s enabled private, for-profit schools to provide free public education in exchange for government funding. Another internationally recognized example is BRAC (the Bangladesh Rural Action Committee), a nongovernmental organization (NGO) that combines community-based literacy and basic education programs with income generating activities for girls and women. BRAC and other NGOs helped raise enrollments in Bangladeshi schools from 55 percent in 1985 to 85 percent by the 21st century.

In programs such as these, education for job entry, upgrading, or promotion occurs on a vast and systematic scale, sometimes offering educational certificates equivalent to college degrees for educational goals achieved while working. Religious institutions, as they have done in the past, instruct the young and old alike not only in sacred knowledge but also in the values and skills required for participation in local, national, and transnational societies as well. And mass media may also be considered a parallel education system that offers worldviews and explanations of how society works, commonly in the form of entertainment, and that systematically reaches larger audiences than formal schooling. These parallel systems may complement, compete with, or even conflict with existing state-sponsored systems of schooling, and they provide challenges that current school systems, as in the past, must confront and reconcile as well as they can.