Special nature and problems

The English title of this work, meaning “second law,” is derived from a faulty Greek translation of chapter 17, verse 18, referring to “a copy of this law”: the implication being that the book is a second law or an expanded version of the original law for the new generation of Israelites about to enter Canaan. Hebrew texts take the opening words of the book as title, Ele ha-Devarim (These Are The Words), or simply Devarim (Words). As noted in Composition and authorship, above, the book is in a class by itself in the Pentateuch, so much so that modern scholars tend to consider it apart from the other four books, and some see it in style, content, and concerns more closely related to the succeeding books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, constituting a “Deuteronomic history.” In spite of its homogeneous style and tone—it is assigned for the most part to a single source, D—the content indicates to critical scholars very composite traditions, ages, and situations behind the finished form. This book has elicited a library of scholarship going back to the early 19th century, not only because of the complicated critical and historical problems calling for solution but also because of its spiritual and theological message, which gives it a special place among Old Testament writings.

In form, the book is ostensibly a discourse by Moses “to all Israel” in the final month in Moab before they go over the Jordan into Canaan. Actually it comprises three separate discourses, a set of laws, two poems, and various other matters, all ascribed to Moses directly—here it is Moses who sets forth the laws, not God through him. These materials are centred on the presentation of the rules of life and worship for the coming stay in the Promised Land, along with exhortations and explanations pointing to YHWH, the marvellous liberator from Egypt and guide in the wilderness, as the divine source and reason for the commands. The traditional view was that, with the possible exception of the account of Moses’ death, the whole book was written by Moses, based on the phrase “And Moses wrote this song” in chapter 31, verse 22.

Some early Church Fathers identified the book with “the book of the law” (II Kings, chapter 22, verse 8), found in the 18th year of King Josiah’s reign (c. 621 bce), and made the basis of his great religious reform the following year. Wilhelm M.L. de Wette, a German biblical scholar, in 1805 established the predominant modern view that Deuteronomy (or its nucleus, or main portion) was found in Josiah’s time and was a distinctive book, separate from the Tetrateuch. He also held that it was composed shortly before its discovery; other, more recent, scholars would put it as much as a century earlier and connect it with earlier reforms, while some associate it with the writings and teachings of the 8th-century-bce prophet Hosea and with the E source. Furthermore, the references to localities near Shechem as cultic places, taken with certain passages in Joshua, indicate a northern provenance for the book and not the southern source connected with a cultic centre at Jerusalem, as had been previously supposed from the associated material in II Kings. Some scholars see the form and occasion of Deuteronomy as a Covenant renewal ceremony in which the whole law is read, as in Joshua, chapter 8, verses 30–35, and thus view it as a liturgical document, as well as a lawbook. In any case, the tendency is to see various layers of materials and lines of transmission, perhaps going back to quite early preliterary sources, before its final formation in the 8th or 7th century bce.

The book may be divided as follows: (1) introductory discourse to the whole book (chapter 1 to chapter 4, verse 43); (2) introductory discourse to the lawbook (chapter 4, verse 44, through chapter 11); (3) the lawbook (chapters 12–28); (4) concluding exhortation and traditions about the last days and death of Moses (chapters 29–34).

First introductory discourse of Moses

The first introductory discourse, spoken by Moses, traces the journey of the Israelites from Mt. Horeb to Moab, with some noticeable differences in detail from the account in Exodus and Numbers and an emphasis on Moses being banned from entrance into the Promised Land because the Lord was angry at the Israelites. To this historical retrospect is appended an exhortation to the people to obey God’s laws and norms, recalling the imageless God of the revelation and Covenant at Horeb as a warning against making images and serving man-made gods. The uniqueness and soleness of the God of the Exodus and Covenant, his power and presence in his marvellous acts of redemption and revelation, and his gracious selection of Israel are proclaimed in rhetorical questions; moreover, it is emphasized that the God of Israel (“YHWH your God”) “is God in heaven above and on the earth beneath; there is no other.” The injunctions against idolatry appear to come from later experience and religious crisis in Canaan. The fact that other nations have their own gods and objects of worship is recognized elsewhere in Deuteronomy.

Second introductory discourse

The second discourse, also ascribed to Moses, again refers to the Covenant at Horeb and sets forth the Ten Commandments, which the people are admonished to obey rigorously, emphasizing the mediating function of Moses at Horeb between the awesome divine presence and the awestruck people. Israel is further admonished to obey the law through wholehearted love of God, expressed in what became the central liturgical expression of Israel’s faith, beginning, “Hear, O Israel: The Lord is our God, the Lord Alone. You must love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might.” If they obey God’s laws, avoid other gods, and do what is right and good, they will possess the land promised by God—him who rescued them from Egypt and has brought them thus far. They are to avoid marriage and all other intercourse with the peoples of the land, utterly destroying them and their idolatrous altars and cultic places, for they are a special, holy people chosen by God out of all the peoples because of his love, not because of their greatness or power. This marvellous love will continue to be exercised, and the people will be blessed with all good things—prosperity, fertility, health, and success in battle—if they obey God’s ordinances. They are urged to remember the 40-year period of wilderness wandering, in which they were tested (disciplined) by God through hardship and hunger (to find out whether or not they would keep his commands) and saved by him: man does not live by bread alone but, rather, by whatever God provides (e.g., manna from heaven). Another time of testing will come when they live in the rich, fertile land of Canaan and eat their fill and perhaps forget the Lord and his laws, ascribing their wealth to their own power and might and even venturing into idolatrous worship of the gods of the land. If they do so they shall perish, just as the idolatrous nations of the land shall.

A long list of the apostasies of Israel is presented in chapter 9 to demonstrate the point that Israel is going in to possess the land of Canaan not through any virtue of their own but because of God’s promise to the patriarchs. This is followed in chapter 10 by a moving declaration of what God requires of Israel—fear (reverence), walking in his ways, love, wholehearted service, and keeping his commandments—and an extolling of the wondrous, unique, powerful God who liberated them from Egypt. Chapter 11 extols the richness of the land of Canaan and describes how it will bloom for them if they are observant of God’s commandments and promises that they will hold the territory from the wilderness to Lebanon and from the Euphrates to the western sea (Mediterranean). It closes with the choice set before them by Moses of “a blessing and a curse”—the former if they obey the commandments, the latter if they do not. This choice is posed to them immediately before the presentation of the laws and norms beginning in chapter 12.