- Texts and versions
The Deuteronomic “theology of history”
- Related Topics:
- number of the beast
- Hebrew Bible
- mammon
- Bible
- biblical criticism
The Deuteronomic “theology of history” shows through very clearly in Judges: unless the people of the Covenant remain faithful and obedient to Yahweh, they will suffer the due consequences of disobedience, whether it be an overtly willful act or an unthinking negligence in keeping the Covenant promise. The Deuteronomist worked out a formula for his theology of history that was based in a very dramatic way on the historical events of the period: (1) obedience to Yahweh brings peace and well-being; (2) a period of well-being often involves a slackening of resolve to keep the commandments of Yahweh or outright disobedience; (3) disobedience leads to a weakness of the faith that had bound the community together and thus leaves the community open to repression and attacks from external enemies; and (4) external repression forces the community to reassess its position and ask the cause of the calamities, thus leading to repentance and eventual strength to resist all enemies.
Canaanite culture and religion
The Israelite tribes during the period of the guidance and leadership of Moses and Joshua mainly had to contend with nomadic tribes; in their contacts with such groups, they absorbed some of the attitudes and motifs of the nomadic way of life, such as independence, a love of freedom to move about, and fear of or disdain for the way of life of settled, agricultural, and urban peoples.
The Canaanites, with whom the Israelites came into contact during the conquest by Joshua and the period of the Judges, were a sophisticated agricultural and urban people. The name Canaan means “Land of Purple” (a purple dye was extracted from a murex shellfish found near the shores of Palestine). The Canaanites, a people who absorbed and assimilated the features of many cultures of the ancient Near East for at least 500 years before the Israelites entered their area of control, were the people who, as far as is known, invented the form of writing that became the alphabet, which, through the Greeks and Romans, was passed on to many cultures influenced by their successors—namely, the nations and peoples of Western civilization.
The religion of the Canaanites was an agricultural religion, with pronounced fertility motifs. Their main gods were called the Baalim (Lords), and their consorts the Baalot (Ladies), or Asherah (singular), usually known by the personal plural name Ashtoret. The god of the city of Shechem, which city the Israelites had absorbed peacefully under Joshua, was called Baal-berith (Lord of the Covenant) or El-berith (God of the Covenant). Shechem became the first cultic center of the religious tribal confederacy (called an amphictyony by the Greeks) of the Israelites during the period of the judges. When Shechem was excavated in the early 1960s, the temple of Baal-berith was partially reconstructed; the sacred pillar (generally a phallic symbol or, often, a representation of the ashera, the female fertility symbol) was placed in its original position before the entrance of the temple.
The Baalim and the Baalot, gods and goddesses of the Earth, were believed to be the revitalizers of the forces of nature upon which agriculture depended. The revitalization process involved a sacred marriage (hieros gamos), replete with sexual symbolic and actual activities between men, representing the Baalim, and the sacred temple prostitutes (qedeshot), representing the Baalot. Cultic ceremonies involving sexual acts between male members of the agricultural communities and sacred prostitutes dedicated to the Baalim were focussed on the Canaanite concept of sympathetic magic. As the Baalim (through the actions of selected men) both symbolically and actually impregnated the sacred prostitutes in order to reproduce in kind, so also, it was believed, the Baalim (as gods of the weather and the Earth) would send the rains (often identified with semen) to the Earth so that it might yield abundant harvests of grains and fruits. Canaanite myths incorporating such fertility myths are represented in the mythological texts of the ancient city of Ugarit (modern Ras Shamra) in northern Syria; though the high god El and his consort are important as the first pair of the pantheon, Baal and his sexually passionate sister-consort are significant in the creation of the world and the renewal of nature.
The religion of the Canaanite agriculturalists proved to be a strong attraction to the less sophisticated and nomadic-oriented Israelite tribes. Many Israelites succumbed to the allurements of the fertility-laden rituals and practices of the Canaanite religion, partly because it was new and different from the Yahwistic religion and, possibly, because of a tendency of a rigorous faith and ethic to weaken under the influence of sexual attractions. As the Canaanites and the Israelites began to live in closer contact with each other, the faith of Israel tended to absorb some of the concepts and practices of the Canaanite religion. Some Israelites began to name their children after the Baalim; even one of the judges, Gideon, was also known by the name Jerubbaal (“Let Baal Contend”).
As the syncretistic tendencies became further entrenched in the Israelite faith, the people began to lose the concept of their exclusiveness and their mission to be a witness to the nations, thus becoming weakened in resolve internally and liable to the oppression of other peoples.
Judges: importance and role
The role of the judges
Under these conditions, the successors to Joshua—the judges—arose. The Hebrew term shofet, which is translated into English as “judge,” is closer in meaning to “ruler,” a kind of military leader or deliverer from potential or actual defeat. In a passage from the so-called Ras Shamra tablets (discovered in 1929), the concept of the judge as a ruler is well illustrated:
Our king is Triumphant Baal,
Our judge, above whom there is no one!
The magistrates of the Phoenician-Canaanite city of Carthage, which competed with Rome for supremacy of the Mediterranean world in the 3rd century bce, were called suffetes, thus pointing toward the political authority of the judges.
The office of judgeship in the tribal confederacy of the Israelites, which was centered at a covenant shrine, was not hereditary. The judges arose as Yahweh saw fit, in order to lead an erring and repentant people to a restoration of a right relationship with him and to victory over their enemies. The quality that enabled a person selected by Yahweh to be a judge was charisma, a spiritual power that enabled the judge to influence, lead, and control the people caught between the allurements of the sophisticated Canaanite culture and the memory of the nomadic way of life with its rugged freedom and disdain for “civilization.” Though many such leaders are mentioned, the Book of Judges focusses attention upon only a few that are singled out as especially significant: Deborah and Barak, Gideon, Abimelech, Jephthah, and Samson. In spite of the Israelites’ repeated apostasy, such leaders, under the guidance and spiritual powers granted to them by Yahweh, were able to lead their tribes in successfully defeating or driving back their opponents.
The Book of Judges may be divided into four parts: (1) the conquests of several tribes (chapter 1), (2) a general background for the subsequent events according to the interpretation of the Deuteronomic historian—“And the people of Israel did what was evil in the sight of the Lord and served the Baals”—(chapter 2 through chapter 3, verse 6), (3) the exploits of the judges of Israel (chapter 3, verse 7, through chapter 16), and (4) an appendix (chapters 17 through 21).
Judges, chapter 1, shows that the conquest of Canaan, in contradistinction to the view presented in Joshua, was incomplete, inconclusive, and lengthy. Though conquests of some of the tribes (Judah, Simeon, Caleb, and the “house of Joseph”) are noted, the main emphasis is on the cities and areas that the tribes had not conquered—e.g., “And Ephraim did not drive out the Canaanites who dwelt in Gezer, but the Canaanites dwelt in Gezer among them” (chapter 1, verse 29).
The second section gives the Deuteronomic interpretation of the consequences of such a policy:
they forsook the Lord, the God of their fathers, who had brought them out of the land of Egypt; they went after other gods, from among the gods of the peoples who were round about them; and they provoked the Lord to anger. They forsook the Lord, and served the Baals and the Ashtaroth. (chapter 2, verses 12–13)
In chapter 3 an explanation is given as to why the Canaanites had not been annihilated and were allowed to remain with the Israelites: they enabled the Israelites to be tested in the techniques of warfare; the Philistines, for example, had a monopoly on the smelting of iron in the area—and the iron used in their weapons was far superior to the bronze used by the Israelites for their swords, shields, and armaments—until the secret had been wrested from them by the first king of Israel, Saul, in the latter part of the 11th century bce. The Canaanites also served to test the faith of the Israelites in the one, true God, Yahweh.
The role of certain lesser judges
The third section relates the exploits of the various judges. Othniel, a member of the tribe of Caleb, delivered the erring Israelites from eight years of oppression by Cushan-rishathaim, king of Mesopotamia. The king, however, was most likely an area ruler, rather than a king of the Mesopotamian Empire. Another judge, Ehud, a left-handed Benjamite, delivered Israel from the oppression of the Moabites. Ehud, who had hidden a sword under his garments on his right side so that when a search of his person was made it would be overlooked, brought tribute to Eglon, the Moabite king. Upon Ehud’s claiming to have a secret message for the king, Eglon dismissed the other people carrying tribute. Ehud then said to the King, “I have a message from God to you,” assassinated him, locked the doors to the chamber, and escaped. Rallying the Israelites around him, Ehud led an attack upon the Moabites that was decisive in favor of the Israelites. Shamgar, the third judge, is merely noted as a deliverer who killed 600 Philistines.
