New Testament history

Background

The historical background of the New Testament and its times must be viewed in conjunction with the Jewish matrix from which it evolved and the Hellenistic (Greek cultural) world into which it expanded during a period of Jewish religious propaganda. It is difficult, however, to separate the phenomena of the Jewish and Hellenistic backgrounds, because the Judaism out of which the church arose was a part of a very Hellenized world. The conquests of Alexander the Great culminated in 331 bce, and the subtle but strong influence of Greek culture, language, and customs that was spread by his conquests united his empire. Jews in both Palestine and the Diaspora (Dispersion) were, however, affected by Hellenism, as in ideas of cosmic dualism and rich religious imagery derived in part from Eastern influence as a result of the Greek conquests. Greek words were transliterated into Hebrew and Aramaic even in connection with religious ideas and institutions as, for example, synagogue (religious assembly), Sanhedrin (religious court), and paraclete (advocate, intercessor). It could be argued that the very preoccupation with ancient texts and tradition and the interpretation thereof is a Hellenistic phenomenon. Thus, what may appear as the most indigenous element in the activity of the Jewish scribes, sages, and rabbis (teachers)—i.e., textual scholarship—has its parallels in Hellenistic culture and is part of the general culture of the times. The thought worlds merged, confronted each other, and communicated with each other.

The Hasmonean kingdom

After Alexander’s death the empire was split, and first the Ptolemies, an Egyptian dynasty, and then the Seleucids, a Syrian dynasty, held Palestine. Antiochus IV Epiphanes, a 2nd-century-bce Seleucid king, desecrated the Temple in Jerusalem; a successful Jewish revolt under the Maccabees, a priestly family, resulted in its purification (164 bce) and in freedom from Syrian domination in 142 bce. This began the Hasmonean (Maccabean) dynasty, which appropriated the powers both of king and of high priest. This reign, which created dissatisfaction on the part of other groups who considered their own claims falsely usurped, lasted until internecine strife brought it to an end. John Hyrcanus II, a 1st-century-bce Hasmonean king, appealed to Rome for help, and Pompey, a Roman general, intervened, bringing Palestine under Roman rule in 63 bce. John Hyrcanus, given the title of ethnarch, was later executed for treason (30 bce), thus ending the Hasmonean line, but Jewish independence had come to an end by Roman occupation.

Rule by the Herods

The Herods who followed were under the control of Rome. Herod the Great, son of Antipater of Idumaea, was made king of Judaea, having sided with Rome, and he ruled with Roman favour (37–4 bce). Though he was a good statesman and architect, he was hated by the Jews as a foreigner and semi-Jew. Jesus was born a few years before the end of his reign, and “the slaughter of the innocents,” young children of Bethlehem who were killed as possible pretenders to Herod’s throne, was attributed to Herod. After his death, Palestine was divided among three of his sons: Philip was made tetrarch of Iturea (the northeast quarter of the province) and ruled from 4 bce until 37 ce. Herod Antipas became tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea until ad 39 and, like his father, was a builder, rebuilding Sepphoris and Tiberias before he was banished. Herod Antipas had John the Baptist beheaded and treated Jesus with contempt at Jesus’ trial before him, before sending him back to Pontius Pilate, the Roman procurator (26–36 ce) at the time of Jesus’ Crucifixion. Archelaus was made ethnarch of Judaea, Samaria, and Idumaea but was removed by 6 cefor his oppressive rule, and Judaea then became an imperial province, governed by procurators responsible to the emperor.

Two other Herods are mentioned in the New Testament: Agrippa I (called “Herod the king,” 37–44 ce) had James, the brother of John, killed and had Peter arrested; and the last of the Herods, Agrippa II, king of Trachonitis (c. 50–100 ce), welcomed the procurator Festus (c. 60–62 ce), who replaced Felix (c. 52–60 ce) for the trial of Paul.

Roman occupation and Jewish revolts

In 66–70 ce there was a Jewish revolt while Nero was emperor of Rome (54–68). When he died and was succeeded by Vespasian, his former army commander (69–79), the siege and final destruction of Jerusalem occurred (70 ce). Before this event, Jewish Christians had fled, perhaps to Pella, and Yohanan ben Zakkai, a leading Jewish rabbi, with a group of rabbinical scholars, fled to Yavneh, where they established an academy that gave leadership to the Jews. Under the emperors Trajan (98–117) and Hadrian (117–138), Jews in Egypt and Mesopotamia rebelled and again fought unsuccessfully against Rome in Palestine for forbidding the practice of religious rites, and, under Simeon Bar Kokhba (or Bar Koziba), a Jewish revolutionary messianic figure, the final Jewish war was waged (132–135). After this defeat Jerusalem became a Roman colony; a temple to Jupiter was erected there, and Jews were prevented from entering the city until the 4th century.

When the Romans had entered Palestine in 63 bce, they practiced a relatively humane occupation until c. 66–70 ce. They did not interfere with religious practices unless they considered them a threat to Rome, and their rights of requisition were precise and limited.