From neutrality to active aid

The outbreak of war brought a swift change of mood to the United States. While isolationism was still widespread, the vast majority of Americans were sympathetic to Britain, and Roosevelt did not follow Wilson in asking Americans to be neutral in thought as well as deed. Instead he set out to lead public opinion and gradually expand his ability to aid the Allies. On September 21, 1939, his brilliant speech to Congress laid the groundwork for passage of the Pittman Bill, which became law on November 4 and repealed the arms embargo on belligerent nations. Henceforth, the United States might trade with Britain and France, but only on a “cash and carry” basis. Senator Arthur Vandenberg rightly noted that the United States could not “become the arsenal for one belligerent without becoming the target for another.” Still, the President made clear to Churchill (with whom he struck up close relations by correspondence) his desire to aid Britain in every way consonant with the American mood. Only once did Roosevelt make a feint at mediation: In March 1940 he sent Undersecretary of State Sumner Welles to Europe on a fact-finding mission that revealed “scant immediate prospect” of peace. When Hitler’s Western offensive followed, even that dubious prospect disappeared, and Churchill assured his House of Commons that Britain would fight on “until, in God’s good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and liberation of the Old.”

In January 1940, Roosevelt asked for a mere $2,000,000,000 in defense spending, a slight increase over the year before. But the fall of France pushed the pace of U.S. rearmament up to $10,500,000,000 by September. Opinion polls showed the American public heavily favouring a policy of “all aid short of war” to Britain. On May 15, Churchill sought to capitalize on the shifting sentiment with an emergency request for 40 or 50 overage destroyers with which to counter German U-boats. Roosevelt hesitated because of the legal complications, while continuing his efforts to shape opinion by encouraging William Allen White’s Committee to Defend America to foster the idea that “Between Us and Hitler Stands the British Fleet!” On September 2 the United States transferred 50 warships to Britain in return for long-term leases on British naval bases in the Western Hemisphere. Despite Roosevelt’s public relations, isolationist sentiment remained strong. On September 4 the America First Committee arose to challenge Roosevelt’s deceptive campaign for intervention, and Wendell Willkie charged during the presidential campaign that Roosevelt’s reelection would surely mean war. The president responded that “your boys are not going to be sent into any foreign wars,” gliding over the fact that if the United States were attacked, it would no longer be a foreign war.

The next step in U.S. involvement stemmed from Churchill’s warning of December 9, 1940, that Britain was near bankruptcy. Roosevelt responded with lend-lease, a plan to “eliminate the dollar sign” by lending, not selling, arms. If your neighbour’s house is on fire, he argued, you do not sell him a hose, you lend it to him until the fire is out. “If Great Britain goes down,” he warned, “all of us in the Americas would be living at the point of a gun…. We must be the great arsenal of democracy.” Churchill added his own ringing appeal on February 9, 1941: “Give us the tools and we will finish the job.” Willkie asked Republicans to back lend-lease, which became law on March 11.

Unknown to the public, Roosevelt authorized joint U.S.–British staff talks. The two countries also collaborated on how to meet the U-boat menace. Admiral Karl Dönitz’s wolfpack technique, by which eight to 10 U-boats would strike a convoy from the surface at night (thereby avoiding the British Anti-Submarine Detection Investigation Committee device [ASDIC sonar]), cost the British and Americans 320,048 tons of shipping in January 1941 and 653,960 tons in April. American Admiral Harold R. Stark considered the situation “hopeless except as [the United States] take strong measures to save it.” In Hemispheric Defense Plan No. 1 (April 2) Roosevelt authorized the navy to attack German submarines west of 25° longitude and by executive agreement with the Danish government-in-exile placed Greenland under American protection (April 9). U.S. marines also occupied Iceland in July.

The German invasion of the Soviet Union posed the problem of whether to extend lend-lease to the U.S.S.R. Only 35 percent of Americans polled favoured underwriting the Communist regime, but Roosevelt, supporting his acting secretary of state, Sumner Welles, said “Of course we are going to give all aid we possibly can to Russia,” on the theory that anything that contributed to the defeat of Germany enhanced the security of the United States. Aid to the Soviet Union began in July, and a formal agreement followed on August 2. But the initial supplies were too meagre to affect the battles of 1941. Roosevelt meanwhile pressed for amendments to the Selective Service Act to remove the ceiling of 900,000 men on U.S. armed forces and the ban on use of troops beyond the Western Hemisphere and to permit the president to retain draftees in service. This provoked the last great Congressional debate on isolationism versus interventionism; the House passed the bill by a single vote on August 12.

It was during this debate that Roosevelt and Churchill met secretly off the coast of Newfoundland and drafted a manifesto of the common principles that bound their two countries and all free peoples. In this eight-point Atlantic Charter (announced on August 14), reminiscent of Wilson’s Fourteen Points, the signatories renounced territorial aggrandizement and endorsed the restoration of self-government to all captured nations and equal access to trade and raw materials for all. According to Churchill, Roosevelt also promised to “wage war but not declare it” and to look for an incident that would justify open hostilities. When the Congress voted on November 7 to arm merchant ships and allow them into the war zone, it seemed that submarine warfare would again be casus belli for the United States. U-boats had already torpedoed the destroyers Kearney and Reuben James (the latter was attacking the submarine, but sank with 115 hands on October 31). But in fact it took dramatic events in another theatre altogether to make Roosevelt’s undeclared war official.