While Britain, France, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey all survived their crises of 1917 and found the will and stamina for one last year of war, Russia succumbed. In three years of war Russia had mobilized roughly 10 percent of its entire population and lost over half of that number in battle. The home economy was stretched to the limit, and even the arms and food it could produce were subject to vagaries of transport and corruption in the supply services. Inflation and food shortages panicked the towns, and shortages of fuel isolated the countryside. Suddenly, on March 12, 1917, the parliament and Petrograd soviet (workers’ and soldiers’ council) joined forces to form a Provisional Government. Three days later the Tsar abdicated.

Two leading ministers in the new regime, Aleksandr Kerensky and Pavel Milyukov, hoped to streamline the state and invigorate the war effort. Political liberals, they valued Russia’s ties to Britain and France and even looked forward to capturing Constantinople as a means of legitimating the new regime. Kerensky assured the Allies on March 17 that Russia would fight “unswervingly and indefatigably” until victory. The local soviets and leftist parties, however, forced a declaration in April by which “free Russia” renounced domination over other nations and their territories. When Prince Gyorgy Lvov, the prime minister, promised to accept the revolutionary formula of “no annexations, no indemnities” on May 15, Milyukov stepped down as foreign minister. President Wilson was especially moved by the spectacle of Russia embracing democracy, and all the Allies could now truly depict their cause as moral and ideological: “to make the world safe for democracy,” as Wilson said, in opposition to militarism and imperialism. Russia’s ability to fight steadily and rapidly deteriorated, however. The Petrograd soviet called for abolition of the officer corps, and the Provisional Government abolished courts-martial and issued a Declaration of Soldiers’ Rights.

The Provisional Government’s decision to continue the war was a grave disappointment to the Germans. Since 1914 they had dabbled in revolutionary intrigues in hopes of shattering Russia from within. The campaign took two forms: collaboration with nationalist agitators among the Finns, Baltic peoples, Poles, Ukrainians, and Georgians; and support for Russian social revolutionaries. Lenin, leader of the most virulent wing of Russian Marxists, the Bolsheviks, was living in Kraków when the war broke out and was promptly arrested. An Austrian Social Democrat, Victor Adler, persuaded the Austrian minister of the interior that Lenin was an ally in the fight against Russia, whereupon he was released into Switzerland. Another Russian émigré and socialist, Alexander Helphand, impressed the German ambassador in Constantinople with his revolutionary connections and was soon briefing the German foreign ministry in Berlin. In March 1915 the Germans set aside the first 2,000,000 of what would eventually total 41,000,000 marks spent on secret subversion in Russia.

After the first Eastern Front victories in 1915, Berlin had hoped to entice Russia into a separate peace, and efforts to that end continued up to March 1917. Behind the scenes, however, Helphand’s organization, supported by the German foreign office, worked to spread revolutionary and pacifist ideas inside Russia. After Kerensky’s declaration that Russia would stay in the war, the German command determined to facilitate Lenin’s return to Russia. On April 9, 1917, he and his comrades were placed aboard a special security train in Zürich for the trip across Germany, continued by boat to Sweden and thence by rail to Petrograd.

Bolshevik propaganda penetrated the army, which even the Russian high command confessed was “a huge, weary, shabby, and ill-fed mob of angry men.” In an attempt to restore it to fighting trim, General Lavr Kornilov urged on Kerensky a number of reforms (August 16), but behind Kornilov were conspirators hoping for military dictatorship. Kerensky grasped the danger to himself, forbade troop movements to the capital lest they support a coup, and then had Kornilov arrested. The division between the centre and right gravely weakened the Provisional Government and strengthened the Bolsheviks, who took the lead in denouncing this “counterrevolutionary plot.” The Provisional Government, bereft of authority and will, hoped to hold on until elections for a Constituent Assembly in December. Lenin, knowing that he stood to lose by the fact and the result of free elections, struck in November, and the Provisional Government collapsed in the face of the Bolshevik coup d’état.

One of Lenin’s first acts as revolutionary dictator of Russia was to attempt to transform the European war of nations into a war of classes. His ringing speech of November 8 appealed to workers and soldiers everywhere to force an immediate armistice, end secret diplomacy, and negotiate a peace of “no annexations, no indemnities.” Lenin, Leon Trotsky, and Karl Radek promptly organized to spread revolution abroad. The expected uprisings occurred nowhere, but peace was mandatory for Russia if the Bolshevik regime were to survive. On December 15, therefore, Lenin’s regime signed an armistice with the Central Powers.