Within a year after American entry into the war Axis power crested and began to ebb, for critical battles were fought in 1942 in every major theatre. The year also saw the forging of a Grand Alliance among the United States, Britain, and the U.S.S.R. and the first sign of disagreement on strategy and war aims.

After Pearl Harbor, Churchill requested an immediate conference with Roosevelt. The two met for three weeks at the Arcadia Conference in Washington after December 22, 1941. They reaffirmed the “Europe first” strategy and conceived “Gymnast,” a plan for Anglo-American landings in North Africa. They also created a Combined Chiefs of Staff Committee and issued, on January 1, 1942, the United Nations Declaration in the spirit of the Atlantic Charter. But Sir Anthony Eden had traveled to Moscow in late December and returned with troubling news: Stalin demanded retention of all the territory gained under the German–Soviet Nonaggression Pact and grumbled that the Atlantic Charter was apparently directed against him, not Hitler. The Soviets also first made what was to become their incessant demand that the Allies open a second front in France to take the pressure off the Red Army. Roosevelt sent Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall to London to argue for a cross-Channel invasion by April 1943, but the British deemed it impossible. London reassured Molotov by concluding an Anglo-Soviet alliance (May 26, 1942) to last for 20 years. In late June, Churchill and Roosevelt met again in Washington, D.C., and confirmed plans for a joint operation in Africa despite the misgivings of American generals, who suspected the British of being more concerned for the defense of their empire than the rapid defeat of Hitler. In the end the British won, and on July 25 the Allies approved the renamed operation “Torch”—a combined invasion of North Africa planned for the autumn. Churchill then traveled to Moscow in August 1942, where Stalin berated him for postponing the second front and suspending Arctic convoys because of German naval action. Despite his suspicions and fears, Stalin could take grim satisfaction from the events of 1942, for by December of that year the German advance into the Soviet Union had been stopped, though at enormous cost.

The Allied landings in North Africa, where British forces had finally turned back General Erwin Rommel’s Afrika Korps at el-Alamein, were targeted for Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers. (Hence, the first American initiative in the war was to be an unprovoked and undeclared attack against neutral territory.) Vichy France promptly severed diplomatic relations with Washington and ordered French forces in North Africa to resist. Brief but serious fighting resulted at Oran and Casablanca. The allies had been seeking a French leader with the prestige and willingness to rally French Africa against the Axis, but the nominal commander was Admiral François Darlan, an ardent collaborationist in the Vichy Cabinet. The Allies preferred General Henri Giraud, a heroic escapee from a prison camp, but he insisted on being given command of the whole Allied invasion force. When Darlan surprisingly turned up in Algiers, U.S. Ambassador Robert Murphy negotiated a deal whereby Eisenhower recognized Darlan as political chief of North Africa in return for Darlan’s ordering French forces to cease resistance. The Americans soon escaped the embarrassment of having bargained with a leading Fascist when a French royalist shot Darlan on December 24. De Gaulle was able to outmaneuver the vain but inept Giraud to become de facto leader of Free French forces.

In the Pacific, the naval Battle of Midway in June, the landing of U.S. forces on Guadalcanal in August, and the creation of an “island-hopping” strategy against Japan’s sudden and far-flung empire similarly blunted the string of the Axis’ early victories. Meanwhile, General Douglas MacArthur rallied Allied forces in Australia in anticipation of fulfilling his departing promise to the Filipinos: “I shall return.” A Japanese invasion force landed near Gona at the southeastern end of New Guinea in July 1942 and drove Australian troops back to within 32 miles of Port Moresby. But MacArthur executed a series of landings behind the Japanese and secured the entire Papuan coast by late January 1943. Thenceforth Japan, too, went on the strategic defensive.

The economic and scientific wars

How could the Axis powers have imagined that they might win the war, given their narrow base of land area, population, and production, and the size and strength of the enemies they themselves forced into the war? The answer was Blitzkrieg, which involved more than simply a set of tactics for mobile combat but was rather an encompassing theory of total war. The theory posited a strategically mobilized and organized economy meant to avoid a repetition of the war of attrition that wore Germany down in 1914–18. By overrunning their neighbours one by one in swift assaults, the Germans constantly added to their own manpower and resource base while shrinking that available to the enemy. In addition, armament in breadth rather than depth provided the flexibility necessary to shift production from one set of weapons to another depending on the needs of the next campaign, and it permitted constant innovation of weapons systems. Most tellingly, Blitzkrieg shifted the burdens of war from Germany to the conquered peoples. By June 1940 the British were unable to budge a Nazi empire that drew on the resources of the entire continent. But Hitler also realized by late 1940 that all the resources of America would eventually be made available to Britain; hence his decision to break the stalemate by unleashing Blitzkrieg against the Soviet Union. Soviet survival, however, turned the Blitzkrieg into a gigantic war of attrition after all, one in which Germany could never prevail.